The first step for each site is to establish an initial analytical baseline to develop an integrated understanding, shared with local stakeholders, of the interactions, synergies and trade-offs between the four components—water, environment, energy, agriculture and food—as well as the constraints and opportunities at the different sites.

The study site and its resources

Ghardaïa Province is located in the northern part of the Algerian Sahara, approximately 600 km south of the capital, Algiers. Covering an area of 26,165 km², it is divided into 10 municipalities grouped into 8 sub-districts, known as daïras. In 2023, its population was estimated at 466,361 inhabitants, with lower average population density in the rural municipalities in the south.

Water: a critical resources

Ghardaïa Province is characterised by an arid climate due to extremely low rainfall and high rates of evaporation caused by elevated temperatures. Water deficits become more pronounced between May and August, reaching nearly 300 mm in July.

The region’s water resources consist primarily of groundwater extracted from shallow aquifers and, increasingly, from the Continental Intercalary aquifer. Water quality varies across the region: it is poor in the northeast, ranges from poor to acceptable in the central area, and is good to excellent in the south (Benguelia & HadjBrahim, 2018). Surface water originates from limited local rainfall and wadi floods, mainly generated by rainstorms on the southern slopes of the Saharan Atlas.

The sewerage connection rate in Ghardaïa Province is estimated at 85%. Wastewater is collected and treated at three wastewater treatment plants before being discharged into downstream wadis, leading to the creation of artificial wetlands and the indirect recharge of aquifers. However, this wastewater poses risks of contamination by microorganisms, heavy metals and emerging pollutants (Bekaddour, 2024). In areas not connected to the sewerage network, wastewater is discharged directly into the natural environment or disposed of through septic tanks, particularly in oasis areas. This practice is the main cause of groundwater pollution and has led to the complete contamination of certain drinking water sources, rendering them unfit for human consumption (ibid.).

Energy: dependence on gas

The national electricity generation network relies largely on gas-fired thermal power plants. Initiatives to introduce renewable energy sources remain limited due to the high cost of solar equipment and the lack of incentive measures.

Agriculture and food: an oasis-based structure

Agricultural land covers 27.7% of the total area of Ghardaïa Province, but only 3.5% consists of irrigated arable land. The remaining area consists mainly of extensive Saharan rangelands. Under the land development programme, the Directorate of Agricultural Services plans to expand irrigated land at the expense of Saharan rangelands, whose characteristics are poorly suited to agriculture.

State-led agricultural development programmes have encouraged the diversification and intensification of agricultural production in the region (Bensalah et al., 2017). In terms of cultivated area and yields, crop production is dominated by fruit farming (with date palms as the main crop, followed by olive trees, citrus fruits, pomegranates, figs and grapevines), market gardening, fodder crops (including silage maize) and cereals (mainly durum wheat). In terms of herd size and production, livestock farming is dominated by sheep and goats, followed by camels and cattle. Thanks to land development programmes and agricultural support policies, the dairy cattle sector has expanded considerably, making Ghardaïa a milk-producing area with a surplus.

In 2018, Ghardaïa’s agri-food industry comprised 33 private facilities: 2 mineral water plants, 2 soft drink factories, 3 semolina, flour and pasta production units, 11 dairy and yoghurt processing units, 5 date-packing facilities, 2 biscuit factories, 6 animal feed factories and 2 olive oil mills. These facilities employed a total of 285 people (Massire, 2020). According to the Province’s Directorate of Agricultural Services (DSA, 2023), new facilities have strengthened local processing and cold-storage capacity, including 3 olive oil mills, 8 mini-dairies and 2 cold-storage warehouses. Ghardaïa Province has one wholesale market, 11 retail markets and 10 covered markets, primarily dedicated to the sale of fruit and vegetables. In addition to these facilities, numerous specialised fruit and vegetable retail outlets operate throughout the province.

Despite the diversity and richness of its agricultural production and food heritage, little progress has been made in certifying and labelling local products. This is due both to a lack of commitment and engagement among producer organisations and to the absence of a structured institutional framework based on incentives.

Houichiti et al. (2016) identified four types of farming systems:

• Traditional oases account for 8% of the utilised agricultural area (UAA). Land is privately owned, while land development is organised at community level. Farms are very small (less than one hectare) and poorly equipped. They rely on traditional individual or communal wells fitted with electric pumps, which have replaced animal-powered systems. Production follows a three-tier system combining date palms, fruit trees and annual crops, primarily oriented towards subsistence farming and inseparable from water management, which was historically organised collectively. Today, these centuries-old oases face multiple constraints that are contributing to their abandonment. These include increasing land fragmentation associated with urban expansion, tourism development and pollution, particularly from wastewater. The population is predominantly urbanised and derives most of its income from non-agricultural activities, such as trade and services.
• New oases account for a maximum of 3% of the UAA. They were established from the 1960s onwards through state-led land development programmes. Production systems are based on date palms combined with either livestock farming, fodder crops or fruit trees. These new oases face challenges related to collective management and insecure land tenure, resulting in stagnation. Their populations are rural and pursue multiple activities, combining agricultural and non-agricultural work.
• Peri-oasis farms, established from the 1980s onwards through private initiatives under the APFA land tenure scheme (a law granting access to agricultural land ownership through land development), account for 33% of the UAA. Covering between 1 and 3 hectares, they rely on relatively diversified and intensive production systems based either on market gardening or on integrated livestock farming combined with fodder crops and date palms. Their main constraints are water scarcity and plant and/or animal health problems.
• Extra-oasis farms account for 56% of the UAA. They were also established through private initiatives under the APFA scheme or the agricultural concession programme. Ranging in size from several dozen to several hundred hectares, they are well equipped. Their production systems are diversified and intensive, combining activities such as date palm cultivation, fruit growing, fodder production and livestock farming. These farms face major challenges, including shortages of labour, spare parts and technical support. Farmers often originate from outside the province.

The remainder of the agricultural area consists mainly of Saharan rangelands used by nomadic herders practising transhumant camel or sheep farming.

Over just a few decades, the province has shifted from a community-based model centred on traditional palm groves to an intensive agricultural model enabled by the development of modern irrigated areas. This transformation has been accompanied by declining interest in agriculture among the local population and increased reliance on foreign agricultural labour, including migrants from the Sahel, particularly Mali and Niger, as well as workers from northern Algeria attracted by the expansion of irrigated agriculture.

Irrigation 

For centuries, oasis communities have developed sophisticated hydro-agricultural systems to collect and distribute rainwater and recharge aquifers for drinking water supplies, irrigation and livestock watering. This ancestral hydraulic heritage, traditionally managed by community institutions, has been weakened by the erosion of customary water rights, a process exacerbated by urbanisation, the overexploitation of shallow aquifers and the discovery of deeper water resources. Since the 1980s, mechanisation and agricultural land development have profoundly transformed access to water. In newly developed agricultural areas, individual boreholes have proliferated, often without coordination, leading to a rapid decline in groundwater levels (Massire, 2020). There is no effective control or restriction on groundwater abstraction, resulting in a proliferation of wells, accelerated aquifer overexploitation and increasing competition among users. Today, there are 262 mechanised boreholes, managed individually by large private farms or collectively through irrigation associations in state-established agricultural development projects. Farmers also use shallow wells for multiple purposes and filter wells tapping intermediate aquifers. Informal irrigation practices involving the pumping of water from wastewater treatment plants are also observed among farmers downstream of these facilities, particularly during the summer months (Bekaddour, 2024).

Fragile ecosystems in need of protection

Several areas of the region are exposed to environmental and anthropogenic pressures:

• Traditional oases, which are increasingly affected by urbanisation and tourism. These pressures disrupt their ecological balance through the fragmentation of palm groves and changes to the traditional ksour settlement pattern, resulting in the loss of plant biodiversity and the degradation of hydro-agricultural heritage.
• New agricultural areas, which are threatened by advancing sand dunes and wind erosion, as well as soil salinisation caused by irrigation with mineral-rich water combined with high evaporation rates.
• Saharan rangelands, where biodiversity is deteriorating due to overgrazing and land-use changes associated with the expansion of irrigated agriculture.
• The region’s forest heritage, consisting mainly of Atlas pistachio trees, a rare species, which is particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures such as overgrazing, wood harvesting, fires and uncontrolled gathering.

Wild fauna and flora are also threatened by unregulated hunting and gathering practices.

It should also be noted that industrial activities, particularly the hydrocarbon extraction sector, are major water consumers and lack dedicated infrastructure for treating wastewater before it is discharged into the collective sewerage network.

The main threats facing the territory

The main challenges today include modernising production systems, addressing animal and plant health issues (Boukraa et al., 2013; Beladis et al., 2016; Zergate, 2019), meeting growing water and energy needs (particularly for irrigation), strengthening storage infrastructure (silos, cold rooms and refrigerated warehouses), and developing processing and value-adding capacities for agricultural products.

Water scarcity and competition between different water uses, aquifer overexploitation, and the weakening of community-based water management institutions in favour of centralised administrative systems raise critical questions about the sustainability of irrigation systems. The expansion of irrigated crops, often intended for fodder production or commercial markets, intensifies competition for water at the expense of staple food crops. Climate change further exacerbates this situation. Growing tensions between traditional users (oasis farmers) and new investors undertaking large-scale irrigation projects make it more difficult to implement an integrated and socially acceptable approach (Massire, 2020). The lack of an energy transition in the agricultural sector perpetuates dependence on fossil fuels for water pumping, even though the future of irrigated agriculture is heavily dependent on energy availability.

The use of deep, highly mineralised groundwater, combined with intense evaporation, promotes soil salinisation, thereby reducing soil fertility and long-term agricultural potential. Wind erosion further exacerbates this vulnerability. Rapid and often unplanned urbanisation has outpaced the capacity of the sanitation network. Surface water pollution, combined with the informal reuse of this water for irrigation in some cases, creates health risks for food production and undermines the environmental quality of the watershed.

Crop diversification contributes to local food security but faces significant marketing and commercial constraints.

Furthermore, land fragmentation in traditional oases, driven by population growth and urbanisation, combined with the expansion of intensive, standardised agriculture and encroachment on Saharan rangelands, is leading to biodiversity loss, the erosion of local knowledge and expertise, and the weakening of a territory recognised as a World Heritage Site. The deterioration of groundwater quality due to wastewater pollution and the salinity of irrigation water is also a major contributing factor to biodiversity loss.

The cross-sectoral challenges facing the territory

The future of agriculture in Ghardaïa Province is closely linked to the ability of stakeholders to address several major challenges at the intersection of environmental, climatic and institutional dimensions. The main challenges today include modernising production systems, addressing animal and plant health issues (Boukraa et al., 2013; Beladis et al., 2016; Zergate, 2019), meeting growing water and energy needs (particularly for irrigation), strengthening storage infrastructure (silos, cold rooms and refrigerated warehouses), and developing processing and value-adding capacities for agricultural products.

A first major challenge concerns the sustainable exploitation of groundwater resources. The oasis ecosystem, which relies on a fragile socio-technical balance, is now deeply disrupted by both exogenous shocks (climate change) and endogenous pressures (rapid modernisation and urbanisation). Agricultural practices must therefore adapt around three key areas: improving irrigation efficiency, diversifying crops in favour of drought-resistant species, and developing agroecological techniques suited to oasis and Saharan environments. While improving irrigation may appear to be primarily a water-management challenge, it is also an energy challenge. The region's solar potential represents an underexploited alternative that could be further developed, as several pilot projects have demonstrated the technical and economic feasibility of photovoltaic water pumping.

Another crucial challenge lies in governance. The transition from traditional agriculture, regulated by local institutions, to mechanised and capital-intensive agriculture has profoundly reshaped collective management practices. Strengthening governance frameworks is therefore essential at several levels:

• At the local level, by recognising and building on traditional knowledge and solidarity mechanisms;
• At the regional and national levels, by implementing public policies that reconcile productivity with sustainability;
• At the sectoral level, by regulating markets and supporting producers in their transition towards more resilient systems.

Opportunities for the Territory: Dynamics and Stakeholders That Can Help Improve Territorial Resilience and Sustainability

Traditional floodwater management systems demonstrate an exceptional historical capacity to transform water scarcity into a collective opportunity. They could be revitalised as models of integrated water management (Remini, 2018). The multi-layered oasis system is also a model of ecological and social resilience. NGOs are actively involved in preserving this heritage.

Since the 2000s, national programmes have paid particular attention to Saharan regions, notably through agricultural land development and irrigation expansion, including the funding of irrigation infrastructure and roads and the allocation of land. Private investors, including local farmers and developers from other regions, have also undertaken land development using their own resources (Amichi et al., 2015).

The National Programme for the Development of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (2015–2030) aims to diversify energy sources and address environmental challenges associated with fossil fuel use. The Ministry of Agriculture has established priorities for deploying renewable energy on farms. The first priority concerns existing farms that are not connected to the electricity grid and currently rely on diesel; the second concerns allocated agricultural land that has not yet been developed and is also off-grid; and the third concerns agricultural areas planned for future development.

Innovations Identified by the MORFeuS Project

The value of these innovations, which are often rooted in ancestral knowledge, lies in their ability to reconcile resource scarcity, territorial resilience and social organisation.

Combining Modern and Traditional Community-Based Techniques for Floodwater Management and Enhanced Aquifer Recharge

Traditional infrastructure includes diversion dams, canals that distribute water throughout the oasis, and recharge wells that store water underground, protected from evaporation. These systems also contribute to soil fertility by depositing nutrient-rich sediments. Combined with modern technologies, such as boreholes and motorised pumps, they form a coherent system for capturing, distributing and sharing surface water, as well as recharging aquifers.

Management is overseen by a community institution, Umana Essayl, which is responsible for enforcing customary water-sharing rules. Although these systems have been weakened by the urbanisation of palm groves and the development of drinking water supplies from the Albian aquifer, these ancestral arrangements continue to operate in several oases across the region. This hydraulic expertise has also been adopted by farmers in new agricultural development schemes established by the state.

Establishing Collective Boreholes to Irrigate Small Peri-Oasis Agricultural Development Projects

Management of these boreholes is entrusted to irrigation associations. This public initiative helps prevent the uncontrolled proliferation of individual wells and boreholes. Constructing elevated water storage tanks to enable gravity-fed distribution generates substantial energy savings. Installing timers also helps reduce water consumption on farms.

However, this initiative faces several difficulties, including an excessive number of irrigators relative to borehole capacity and tensions, which sometimes escalate into conflicts, over electricity charges and financial contributions for equipment repairs.

Adopting Modern Water-Efficient Irrigation Techniques. The adoption of modern water-efficient irrigation techniques has been strongly encouraged by agricultural policies since 2000. These techniques are used on nearly three-quarters of the irrigated utilised agricultural area (UAA). Drip irrigation covers 10,779 ha (58.82% of the UAA), centre-pivot irrigation covers 2,838 ha (15.48%), and sprinkler irrigation covers 74.50 ha (0.40%). By contrast, gravity irrigation remains in use across 4,633 ha (25.30% of the UAA).

Incomplete Projects for Reusing Treated Wastewater from Treatment Plants to Irrigate Downstream Agricultural Areas. Implementation of these projects has been considerably delayed. Treated wastewater is currently discharged into wadis downstream of treatment plants, thereby contributing to groundwater aquifer recharge. Empirical studies have documented the informal reuse of this water by farmers, either through direct pumping or indirectly through groundwater extraction (Bekaddour, 2024).

Equipping Livestock Water Points in Saharan Rangelands with Photovoltaic Kits. Fifteen wells located in Saharan rangelands, far from the public electricity grid, have been equipped with publicly funded photovoltaic pumping systems. However, these installations suffer from inadequate equipment maintenance and vandalism. A few individual initiatives also exist, most often on farms located far from the public electricity network.

The Oued Nechou Solar Power Plant Pilot Project in Ghardaïa. Installed in 2014, this plant was one of the first solar power plants to be connected to the national electricity grid. It serves as an “open-air laboratory” for university research and contributes to the development of renewable energy in Algeria.

The Ancestral Oasis Farming System: Optimising Land Use. The oasis farming system, adapted over centuries to extremely arid environments, provides valuable lessons in agroecology. Multi-layered palm grove systems combining date palms, fruit trees and vegetable crops optimise land use while minimising evaporation. They also combine food security, biodiversity conservation and microclimate regulation. Local NGOs belonging to the international RADDO network (Réseau Associatif pour le Développement Durable des Oasis, or Network of Associations for the Sustainable Development of Oases) are committed to preserving oasis culture and protecting biological and agricultural diversity, particularly date palm cultivars and local seeds.

Adding Value to Local Dates to Counter the Trend Towards Date Palm Monoculture. Since the colonial period, date palm cultivation has increasingly shifted towards monoculture, focusing on two dominant varieties characterised by their suitability for long-term storage. Many local varieties, whose qualities remain largely unknown, are now threatened with extinction because of their perishable nature. However, several private initiatives aimed at adding value to local dates have emerged in recent decades. These include the production of date syrup, spreads, date jams and animal feed supplements derived from date kernels.

Introducing New Low-Input, High-Value Crops. Young farmers are developing saffron and mushroom cultivation, aromatic and medicinal plants, honey production, local seed production and agrotourism projects. These innovations require very little input from external markets, consume relatively little water and land, and generate high added value. Nevertheless, they require strong public support, a favourable institutional framework and enhanced producer capacities in production techniques, quality management and marketing.

Labelling Local Products. This initiative, launched by public agricultural authorities over the past three decades with technical cooperation from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), has remained largely at the inventory stage. A number of local products, including dates, peanuts and cheeses, have been registered.

Initiatives to Preserve and Promote Local Culinary Heritage. Several initiatives linked to tourism development have been implemented, including restaurants specialising in traditional cuisine and agrotourism establishments, such as guesthouses located in palm groves. Local associations and religious institutions also conduct awareness-raising activities to promote traditional dishes during ceremonies.

Initiatives to Preserve and Enhance Biodiversity. Informal collective networks of farmers are involved in collecting, conserving, exchanging and multiplying seeds and plant species adapted to the local Saharan environment. Over the past few decades, start-ups have developed in vitro date palm cultivation. Public agencies responsible for forest management are particularly committed to conserving the Atlas pistachio tree, which covers 3,000 hectares in the northern part of the province. They have also introduced several new species, including olive trees, carob trees, moringa and various species used as windbreaks.

Organisational Innovations and Local Governance. Water management committees inspired by community traditions have historically ensured the equitable distribution of water and the resolution of conflicts. Although this collective management model has been weakened by population growth, urbanisation and the increasing individualisation of access to water, some community practices persist. They continue to inform contemporary debates on participatory governance and the sustainable management of natural resources.

Références

Amichi, F., Bouarfa, S., Lejars, C., Kuper, M., Hartani, T., Daoudi A., Amichi, H., Belhamra M. (2015). Des serres et des hommes : des exploitations motrices de l'expansion territoriale et de l'ascension socioprofessionnelle sur un front pionnier de l'agriculture saharienne en Algérie. Cah Agric 24 : 11-19. Doi : 10.1684/agr.2015.0736

Beladis, B., Salah Ouelhadj, B., Yagoub, L., Bahriz H., Doumandji, S., Brahim, A. (2016). Aperçu sur les principaux problèmes phytosanitaires rencontrés dans quelques palmeraies de la région de Ghardaïa pendant l'hiver. Poster, DOI : 10.13140/RG.2.2.22878.84809

Benguelia R., Hadj Brahim A. (2018). Etude hydrogéologique du Continental Intercalaire dans la région de Ghardaia. Master en géologie, option hydrogéologie, Université Kasdi Merbah, Ouargla, 102 pages.

Bensalah, I., Yousfi, B., Menaa, N., & Bougattoucha, Z. (2018). Urbanisation de la vallée du M’zab et mitage de la palmeraie de Ghardaïa (Algérie) : un patrimoine oasien menacé. Belgeo. Revue belge de géographie, 2.

Bekaddour, S. (2024). Déverrouillage des eaux non conventionnelles vers de nouveaux modèles hydro-agricole en milieu aride. Thèse de doctorat en sciences agronomiques, ENSA, Alger.

Boukraa, S., Brahim, A., Babaaissa, N., Francis F. (2013). Moustiques (Diptera: Culicidae) de la région du M’Zab-Ghardaïa, Algérie: biodiversité et importance médico-vétérinaire. Conference paper. DOI :10.13140/2.1.2554.4647

Massire (2020). Situation de référence de la région d’étude : Wilaya de Ghardaïa. In projet MASSIRE « Intégration des institutions locales et des multiples sources d’eau pour l’amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire dans les zones rurales intérieures de l’Afrique du Nord par le renforcement des systèmes d’innovation agricole et rurale », financé par le FIDA, 2019-2024.

Massire (2020). Situation de référence de la région d’étude : Wilaya de Ghardaïa. In projet MASSIRE « Intégration des institutions locales et des multiples sources d’eau pour l’amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire dans les zones rurales intérieures de l’Afrique du Nord par le renforcement des systèmes d’innovation agricole et rurale », financé par le FIDA, 2019-2024.

Zergate, I. (2019). Etude des problèmes phytosanitaires au niveau de l’oasis de Zelfana (W. GHARDAIA). Mémoire de Master, spécialité : Protection des végétaux, Université de Ghardaïa.