The first step for each site is to establish an initial analytical baseline to develop an integrated understanding, shared with local stakeholders, of the interactions, synergies and trade-offs between the four components—water, environment, energy, agriculture and food—as well as the constraints and opportunities at the different sites.
The study area and its resources
The central Algarve (1,500 km²) is located at the extreme south of Portugal; its main city is Faro. This area was selected as the Portuguese demonstration site because it includes (i) a coastal zone, rocky hills (the “barrocal”), and a mountain range (the “serra”), (ii) two important aquifers, and (iii) it experiences strong population pressure, especially from tourism. The coast is densely populated, oriented toward tourism and leisure activities, and contains protected areas. Avocados and lemons are cultivated there. The barrocal is sparsely populated and mainly dedicated to agriculture, producing oranges, avocados, almonds, figs, carob, and olives. The serra is even less populated. Its terrain is steeper and more forested. Some pastoralism and subsistence farming take place there: carob, almonds, figs, honey, and strawberry trees (“medronheiros”), whose fruits are also used to make brandy. The population of the study area shows an aging trend (Regional Coordination for Algarve Development, 2020). The unemployment rate was 4.5 % in 2025 and 4.2 % in 2026 (National Institute of Statistics, 2025/2026). The Algarve is the region of Portugal where the proportion of fixed‑term contracts (CDD) is the highest, resulting in seasonal unemployment. Moreover, the school‑dropout rate was around 20 % in 2019 (CCDR Algarve, 2020).
Water: a critical resource
Water has long been a critical resource because of its scarcity, which explains why its use is regulated. Central Algarve faces particular pressures: saltwater intrusion, concentration of economic activities, and high population density. Its water resources come partly from groundwater—especially the Querença‑Silves aquifer, the largest, and the Campina de Faro aquifer—and partly from surface water stored in the Odelouca, Funcho, Arade, Bravura, Odeleite, and Beliche reservoirs, which supply the regional water‑distribution system. The Querença‑Silves and Campina de Faro aquifers show a poor quantitative status (APA, 2022), and the Campina de Faro aquifer also has a poor chemical status, with high concentrations of nitrates, ammonium, and chlorides in certain areas (Costa, 2022). Desalination, presented as a solution to water shortage in the region (Government of Portugal, 2025), could cover only about 10 % of current annual domestic consumption. Its economic feasibility remains a major concern. Moreover, the brine produced—high in salt concentration—is discharged into the ocean and poses a threat to marine species. In addition to salts, the brine will also contain aluminum resulting from the pre‑treatment performed before the desalination process.
Energy: wind and photovoltaics are gaining importance
Although the Algarve contributes only a small share of Portugal’s total renewable energy, its production has doubled since 2016 (Direção‑Geral de Energia e Geologia, 2023). A considerable portion of photovoltaic plants is located in central Algarve. Wind‑energy production has remained virtually unchanged across the region over the past ten years. There is no hydro‑electric power generation in the Algarve.
In Portugal, pressure for large solar and wind parks is increasing, especially on uncultivated land or when leasing land for energy production becomes more profitable than agricultural use. The Portuguese government has streamlined the permitting procedures for renewable‑energy projects: in sensitive areas, small projects can be exempted from an environmental impact assessment, and in non‑sensitive areas, only projects larger than 100 ha are subject to such studies (Brito, 2023). This trend, however, is generating growing controversy, with opponents highlighting its negative effects on the landscape, territorial identity, soil health, biodiversity, water resources, and the local economy (Brás et al., 2024; Wallace et al., 2025).
Agriculture and food: a production oriented to avocados and oranges
Agriculture is the second economic sector in the Algarve after tourism, but employment in this sector declined by 15.6 % between 2014 and 2023 (EY Parthenon, 2025). Oranges and avocados account for roughly half of the gross value added by agriculture in the Algarve. Between 2013 and 2023, subtropical fruit production increased to represent 6 % of total crops. Citrus occupies 38 % of agricultural land and nuts (carob) 22 %.
Organic agriculture is rapidly expanding in Portugal; it accounts for 22.3 % of the cultivated area and, in 2023, ranked second in the EU in terms of the proportion of agricultural land devoted to this production system (PORDATA, 2025). On average, organic farms in the Algarve cover 11 ha, representing 1 % of the region’s agricultural land, with pastures, fruit orchards, and arable crops being the main activities.
Fragile ecosystems requiring protection
Tourism, housing, transport, and renewable‑energy production are placing increasing pressure on the territory. However, central Algarve includes several protected areas according to the ICNF (Instituto de Conservação da Natureza e Floresta) classification. The municipalities of Loulé, Silves, and Albufeira have also created the Geopark Algarvensis, classified as a UNESCO geopark, with the aim of protecting geological heritage and fostering sustainable socio‑economic development.
Main threats facing the territory
Water scarcity and drought are the main challenges of the water‑agriculture/food‑ecosystem nexus, followed by water pollution. Several reservoirs consistently show very low levels; streams have low flow, some run only seasonally, and the two largest aquifers are under strong usage pressure. Groundwater quality is also threatened, both by agricultural chemical pollution and by salinisation resulting from over‑exploitation.
Numerous water‑related policies exist in the region and public awareness is high, yet the results remain unsatisfactory. Public water administration has failed to stop the proliferation of wells, some of which are illegal. It has decided to limit water consumption in the area: a 15 % reduction for the urban sector (including tourism), 25 % for agriculture, and 18 % for golf courses. Some of these restrictions were later eased after water resources increased thanks to the winter 2024‑2025 precipitation (Revez, 2025). Golf courses, tourism businesses, and large farms have improved the efficiency of their water use, but this has not halted aquifer depletion. High‑technology solutions such as importing water from other regions or seawater desalination are not universally accepted and do not appear cost‑effective, especially for small farmers.
Other issues are land‑use pressure (residents, tourists, renewable‑energy investors) and food dependence. The multiplication of projects, discontinuity of actions, and lack of public funding generate weariness and frustration among residents and project promoters. Communication and coordination between organisations and between projects are evidently difficult. Mistrust, power struggles, and divergent visions regarding sustainable development and political opinions pit the various actors against each other. Water administration therefore faces changing public policies and contradictory measures from central governments on water and environmental policies, both for the region and the country as a whole. In this scenario, local‑development associations act as mediators between public administration, European funds, farmers, and the population, especially in the most remote areas.
Cross-sectoral challenges facing the territory
Water scarcity and drought require coordinated actions and decisions among all economic sectors and local stakeholders—a complex process that remains unfinished.
The sustainable development of regional agriculture must guarantee water and soil quality as well as local and regional supply. Today, on the one hand there is the expansion of tropical fruits and other highly water‑intensive crops destined for export and tourism; on the other hand, there are small‑ to medium‑scale organic and agro‑ecological farms that sell their products in local markets and also for export. These two types of agriculture have very different impacts on water and ecosystems, yet neither truly ensures local supply because of economic inequalities and long food‑chain lengths.
The pressure exerted by tourism on housing, transport, water, food, and prices, the instability linked to the seasonality of residents’ jobs, and the resulting inequalities and low social cohesion also emerge as major vulnerabilities.
Opportunities for the territory: initiatives and stakeholders that can strengthen resilience and sustainability
The University of Algarve plays a very active role in the region. Its research focuses on local food transformation and the Mediterranean diet, on all aspects of water management in the territory, as well as on ecosystems and participatory budgeting. However, it has not yet succeeded in translating these findings into public policies. The agronomy curriculum is even losing momentum due to an insufficient number of motivated students (the agronomy bachelor’s program was not opened in 2025, and there is no teaching or research in agro‑ecology).
Organic farmers implement practices such as mulching and animal integration within their cropping systems, and they sell their products directly to consumers at local or regional markets. They nevertheless struggle to market their products at fair prices and face constraints related to water, soil, and labor. They contribute to the diffusion of organic agriculture by creating vegetable gardens in primary schools and are organized within an association of about fifty members, well integrated into local, regional, and national agro‑ecological networks, which offers training for its members.
Some farmers practice regenerative agriculture: agroforestry, silvopasture, permaculture, planting of native species using the “keyline” method, nature and landscape restoration, and strategies to optimise water infiltration into the soil. Some of them provide training on these topics. Policies and projects that explicitly target this mode of production, however, remain scarce.
Short supply chains are effective at reducing food waste at several points along the chain (Belletti & Marescotti, 2020). A regional strategy for short food‑supply chains could revitalise small‑scale production by focusing on regenerative agro‑ecology, improving access to land, strengthening collective organisations, and promoting local production in school canteens and among other buyers. A regional network of farmers supporting short supply chains is being set up under the “Revitalgarve” regional partnership project, led by the University and the Regional Coordination of Algarve. The project also includes other components, such as promoting the Mediterranean diet and creating a regional brand for locally produced, sustainably farmed products.
Following the work carried out jointly within the egroundwater research project, several stakeholders of the Vale do Lobo sub‑system of the Campina de Faro aquifer signed, in 2024, an agreement formalising their common intention to establish participatory management between authorities and users in order to ensure the protection and restoration of the aquifer. This agreement has so far not resulted in any impact.
The ICNF (Institute for the Conservation of Nature and Forests), which is responsible for protected areas and forests, has seen its financial and human resources decline over recent decades. It nevertheless states that it is ready to collaborate with the University and other territorial actors.
The municipalities are aware of the importance of the issues and are motivated to act. They suffer from a lack of staff, personnel poorly trained for the necessary changes, hierarchical and rigid internal structures, and constant political turnover. They are, however, grouped within an inter‑municipal association, AMAL, which plays a positive role in their coordination. Their work in organising local markets is effective.
APA, 2022. Plano de Gestão de Região Hidrográfica 3º ciclo 2022-2027. Ribeiras do Algarve (RH8). Parte 2 – Caracterização e Diagnóstico. Volume A. Available at https://apambiente.pt/agua/3o-ciclo-de-planeamento-2022-2027 Accessed October 16, 2025.
Wallace R., Schwemmlein K., Batel S., 2025. Solar industrialization, ‘sacrifice zones,’ and new environmental movements: emerging discourses of commonality and critique in Portugal’s energy transition. Sustainability Science 20, 1293–1312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-025-01661-3
Belletti G., Marescotti A., 2020. Short food supply chains for promoting local food on local markets. UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
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Costa, L. 2022. Numerical modelling applied to the understanding of groundwater flow and mass-transport in south Portugal - a perspective of regional hydrogeological problems affecting groundwater status. PhD Thesis. University of Algarve.
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EY Parthenon. 2025. Avaliação Económica da Agricultura Algarvia. Relatório final preliminar. https://www.CCDRAlgarve-alg.pt/site/sites/default/files/inline files/2025082
Governo de Portugal. (2025). Água que Une : Estratégia nacional para a eficiência hídrica [Document de consultation publique]. Ministério do Ambiente e Ministério da Agricultura. https://participa.pt
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Revez I., 2025. Governo garante nova barragem no Algarve e levanta restrições à abertura de furos. Público. https://www.publico.pt/2025/07/04/azul/noticia/governo-garante-nova-barragem-algarve levanta-restricoes-abertura-furos-2139079
